The title of this talk was chosen to reveal something of the way in which I have grown to appreciate Islamic musical tradition:

• it is multi-faceted – many different aspects

• it is like a diamond – beautiful, shining, precious – (this analogy, on reflection, implies a more static image than I might wish, but is perhaps consistent with the idea of the music striving to represent an ideal state)

• it is being observed from outside – I am not Muslim, but have long been impressed by and inspired by the Islamic tradition in music, decorative arts, and architecture.

When I was quite young, my father alerted me to something he discovered only in his mid-teens: the Dark Ages, that period from the 7th-12th centuries, when culture, imagination, and exploration was stifled, was Dark only in the Western European Christian world. The Muslim world, at the same time, was flourishing. My first lesson from this was the more general one: be careful who you believe when they describe the history of the world – it may be a narrow view. Later, I was reminded of the specifics of this lesson when I discovered that Arabic music theory was already in a very advanced stage in the 9th-10th centuries even before Western European musicians had thought much about theorizing at all. This should not have been surprising, as I had been completely enchanted by various types of non-Western music since a year spent in India, Pakistan, and Kashmir at the age of nine. So, for a long time, I have been under the impression that the Arabic music world – and Islamic music in general – was a highly sophisticated model well worth the study.

To give an idea of the breadth of perspectives and depth of research, the following describes a few of the more prominent contributors to Islamic music theory. Some of them approached music theory from the point of performance technique and rhythms of the text; while others spoke from the perspectives of philosophy and mathematics, as music was considered a means of revealing mathematical and even cosmological proportions.

Ibn Surayj (c637–726) gave a list of the qualities needed in a good singer: accuracy of diction and grammar, vocal control, ways in which rhythmic and melodic structures can be embellished, appropriateness of melody to text; appropriate selection of poetry. Al-Hasan ibn ahmad & Ibn al-Tahhān also contributed treatises on vocal techniques in the late 10th/early 11th century C.E.

Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad (718-791) was also known for his attention to techniques relating music to text through attention to metre, rhythm, and prosody in works such as Kitāb al-nagham. He may have been influenced by Indian as well as Arabic and Persian views on the matter. Al-Mawslī (767–850) was a renowned scholar known not only for his composing, performing,, and music theory but also for a general blending of culture and other areas of knowledge like law. Similarly Ziryāb (d 850) contributed to the Umayyad court in Cordoba through a general cultural sophistication as well as through his performing and teaching. Al-Kindī(c801–c866), a philosopher & music theorist, related the numbers of music to the greater universe: thus for example the numbers of strings on the ‘ūd were linked to the 4 elements, the 4 seasons, the 4 points of the compass and the 4 humours. Later, Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al-Sarakhsi (d1286) continued to develop many of al-Kindi’s ideas, and wrote several treatises on melodic composition.

Al-Fārābī (870-950) – whose name tends to be mentioned even in Western music history books, contibuted much knowledge about rhythm, intervals, melodic structure and vocal style through his work Kitāb al-mūsīqī al-kabīr. Reminiscent of the ancient Celtic tests of the highest order of bardic tradition, he was said to be capable of casting spells with his ‘ūd playing, so that his audience would laugh, weep, or fall sleep according to his intentions. Isfahani (897-967) also contributed a vast work of 21 volumes - Kitab al-Aghani al-Kabir. Abul Wafa Muhammed al-Buzjani (940-998), though primarily known as a great mathematician, contibuted significantly to the theories of rhythm. Ibn sīnā (980-1037), Ibn bājja (d 1139) and Ibn rushd (1126–98) are more familiar to Europeans under their Westernized names Avicenna, Avempace, and Averroes. Ibn sīnā included a chapter on music in his encyclopedia Kitāb al-shifā’, placing it alongside astronomy under the general heading of mathematics. The influence of Ibn bājja and Ibn rushd was transferred to the development of European medieval music through the mixed (Islamic/Jewish/Christian/pagan) population of the Iberian peninsula. The European instruments of lute, rebec, naker, organ, and guitar are closely related to their eastern predecessors of ‘ud, rabab, naqqara, urghun, and qitara respectively. The presence of frets on instruments like guitar and lute enabled tuning systems to be fixed. Abū hāmid muhammad al-Ghazālī (1058–1111) responded to the recurring question about the place of music in Islam by defending it as a means of obtaining ecstasy within a religious context. Safī al-dīn al-Momin (d 1294), author of the Kitāb al-adwār, is credited with the invention of the mughari and the nuzha, known to Europeans as the arch-lute and the psaltery. His work on cycles embraced both rhythm and pitch – he clarified the octave and its division into 17 notes. Ibn Khaldūn (1332–1406) was both a philosopher and an historian, who cited music as a litmus test of the health of a civilization, which he felt were destined to rise and fall in cyclical patterns. ‘Abd al-qādir al-marāghī (d 1432), from Azerbaijan, wrote about form, and was also, due to his familiarity with Persian as well as Arabic, sensitive to the different musical implications of different languages.

Isfahani mentioned, among other things, the various functions music has according to the occasion. This is something we seem to forget in the Western world: music can express praise; lament; love; work; ritual (healing, wedding ceremonies, etc.); histories and tales (including programmatic use of sound to imitate the atmostphere of the story, from the clashing of arms and hoofbeats of horses to the singing of birds and babbling of streams); art; politics; and entertainment. It is only this last which is thought of mainly by most Westerners now. Of course, music was often inseparable from dance and from text in most cultures since the earliest times – this is also sometimes forgotten by my academic colleagues.

One of the complicating factors for a Westerner’s study of Islamic music is that we don’t always use the words in the same way. For example, in Islamic contexts, the word “music” is not generally applied to religious contexts or to folk traditions. There is always some controversial area also between what is permitted and what is not – between halāl and harām. There has been much discussion over the centuries about this, especially in terms of samā‘, which might translate as how the music is heard, and the discussion enters into legal and mystical territories as well as theological. At many different stages, proficiency in music was considered to be a necessary part of the education for a truly polished person. (This is certainly an aristocratic view, but as “aristocracy” means literally “rule by the best”, I have some sympathies with it!) ‘Azza al-Maylā’ & Jamīla, two 7th-century women, were known not only for their singing but for their nourishing of cultural literacy and sophistication – certainly in contradiction to later arguments that a woman involved in music was automatically inferior.

More evidence of the semantic problem in such discussions are the various words used to mean what a Western European would call musical composition: ta'līf, ibdā’, qālib, shakl, ughniya. Due to the evolution of the musical contexts and processes, ta'līf now refers to the pre-20th-century form, whereas ibdā’ refers more to the late 20th-century practice of innovative composition, compared to ughniya, which relates more to a contemporary song, while qālib and shakl refer to musical form.

Because traditionally the composer and performer were one and the same person, it is not surprising that many people forget the variety of ways with which one can engage with music. My focus in this talk has been on theory and history, and my own focus is often that of analysis, though usually motivated by my work as a composer. I am also a teacher, and that is an area all too often neglected, especially at the pre-university level. But there are other roles as well, such as concert organizer and radio show host, and the most ubiquitous of all is of course that as listener. I cannot imagine that anyone in our present society is exempt from listening, because it would mean avoiding most shops, not having radio or television in one’s vicinity, etc. So, in this aspect I feel that the Islamic tendency to remain critical about music is essential: since we are so surrounded by music, we should work to ensure that it is the kind of music we wish to influence our environments. I am beginning to appreciate that music has an almost subliminal influence on many people, and it is only by recognizing that and choosing what type of influence one wants that we will be able to build a more healthy society.

This leads me to reflect on the aspects of Islamic music which have been particularly attractive to me throughout the years – aspects that I find much more developed in the Islamic than in the Western European tradition. They include the very specifically musical characteristics such as non-tempered tuniing systems. I am very fond of the linear character of the music, perhaps because I always preferred violin to piano, and in particular the use of heterophony (the non-simultaneous playing of the same melodic line on two instruments), which is considered counter to the Western idea. Islamic music – and non-Western music in general – exhibits a high degree of timbral nuance, such as the control over the way in which a string is plucked or a vocal line is shaped; a celebration of diversity in instrumental sounds – Westerners, perhaps Montrealers in particular, are beginning to return to this with the emphasis on “early” music played on period instruments, but the 19th century orchestra motivated a strong move towards homogeneity in instrumental selection, construction and sound. The rhythmic complexity and the additive structure of the rhythms is probably the most appealing aspect to me, and led to my Ph.D. in rhythmic theory – an area that is almost unaddressed still in Western academia.

You may encounter Westerners who have a colonial-type feeling of superiority that “we” discovered “harmony” and the East did not. However, many of the 20th century composers are well aware that this “detour” into harmony was made at the great expense of preserving and developing a much more subtle range of pitches, durations, and interweaving of parts. My own explorations into electronic or electroacoustic music was motivated in large part by my desire to use microtones and intricate rhythms in ways which our Western notation does not allow to be easily transmitted to the performer.

There are other more general aspects, like the role of improvisation, the typical blending of performer with composer, and the oral transmission of musical repertoire and playing technique, that are found in jazz and folk music in Europe and North America, but have almost disappeared from the Western “art music”; organists are the only instrumentalists whose traditional instruction still requires them to show their proficiency in improvising. In the latter part of the 20th century, some composers have begun to re-introduce this aspect, but finding that most classically-trained musicians are at a loss to improvise, they have been obliged to compose for specific groups which specialize in this area.

Then there are the almost indefinable aspects which I find in Islamic music but seem much rarer in my own culture: the recognition of music’s power, the placing of value on being an amateur as well as a professional musicians; and the sincerity of expression – even devoutness – of many Muslim musicians. The lucrative business of music-making has clouded the airwaves with many people who seem to have little motivation other than financial, although to me the lack of sincerity is practically impossible to hide in a singing voice.

The final aspect, which comes as much from my long love of Persian carpets and Islamic architecture and design as from my musical listening, is the emphasis on design and away from depiction of human nature. As someone who loves natural landscapes and soundscapes, I find most of the Western art too focussed on human activity. From an early age, though unconsciously at first, the abstract design of the Persian carpet represented a way to focus the attention on something transcending the mundane, and lately it has become a kind of puzzle for me to try to translate such a design into musical terms. But I also feel that the instrumental music of the ‘ud and the santur, the kamantche and the rebab, with their freer use of rhythm that transcends ordinary clock time, approaches this same goal. I have noticed that these instrumental works are rarely played by women, but hopefully someone among you could carry out research to reveal that there are no reasons why it should be restricted.

As the music itself is more powerful and persuasive than any amount of talking, I suggest the following as a few examples drawn from the rich repertoire of Islamic music for listening.

N.B. Naturally, this is a very personal selection and is not to be considered a recommendation of listening but simply an illustration of some aspects of the talk. It should be remembered that almost all the musical traditions of all the various countries where Muslims are found have some pre-Islamic roots: this is especially notable in folk traditions but also quite strong for example in Persian art music, where those traditions were quite strong. I could also avoid theological arguments by identifying the Sufi music as Sufi rather than as Islamic per se. A few examples of clearly non-Islamic music are also included, to show the variety of influences that have resulted from contact with the Islamic tradition.

1. EXAMPLES OF FOLK MUSIC TRADITIONS

Women's Songs: A Musical Anthology of the Arabian Peninsula

- VDE-Gallo CD 783

a) 'Aisha Idriss and group, Bahrain – “Tōb, tōb, yā bahr”

b) Shamma Mahmud and group, Bahrain – milling grain – “Dagg, al-habb”

c) Yemen - girls duet – “Muhāwarā”, with tabl and sahn

d) Yemen – young girl – “Tahn al-habb”

Tinde du tassili N'Ajjer-Touareg - vol II

– Al Sur ALCD 123

e) Tuareg lullaby – “uyhuma” – sung by Khadidja Othmani

2. VOCAL MUSIC

Ouzbekistan-Monâjât Yultchieva - -- Ocora-Radio France - C 560060

f) “Monâjât” -- Monâjât Yultchieva, a renowned Sufi singer from Ouzbekistan, sings here a love song to God.

Oum Kaltsoum - Anthologie de la musique arabe Vol VII

g) “YaNassuim Al Fagr” -- Sung by the famous Egyptian singer Oum Kaltsoum.

Warda a l'Olympia vol II – AAA 058

h) “Frag Ghazali” -- Sung by Warda Eldjazaïria – the well-known Algerian singer who used her talents to inspire political fervour towards the liberation of Algeria.

The Song of the Ney – NI 7060/1

i) “Owdj” -- Performed by Hossein ‘Omoumi on the ney and Simâ Binâ singing the text by the 14th century Persian poet Hâfez. Simâ Binâ is known throughout Iran not only for her voice but also for her work in collecting folk songs and melodies from the oral traditions in the Khorâsân region.

Razé No - Mahour Institute of Culture and Art – M.CD-38

j) “Daddobiddad – Hamavayi” -- This is clearly a modern example, with the composer (Hossein Alizadeh) identified as distinct from the performers (Hamâvâyân Ensemble). It is also unusual, not only because men and women are singing together, but also because the twisting together of the various vocal lines begins to sound like some Western contrapuntal technique – probably the most subtle and beautiful example I have heard of a hint of Western European music on Islamic tradition.

Elaheh – Soundex enterprises ARCT-245 [cassette]

k) “Bi Bahaneh” -- performed by the Persian singer Elaheh

3. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

Musique classique Algerienne – Hawzi – AAA 149

l) “Zaabli ou Tmili” -- Algerian musicians Nacer Eddine Chaouli and Zakia Karaturki performing in the Hawzi style derived from the 9th century Andalusian nawbahs.

L'Age d'Or de la musique Egyptienne – AAA 043

m) “Taqsīm Huzām” -- Mustafa Bey Ridā, qānūn, recorded approximately 1930; an example of early 20th century instrumental music from Cairo, derived in form from the instrumental interludes of the suites of vocal / instrumental music called Wasla.

Scattering Stars like Dust – Traditional Crossroads 4288

n) “Improvisation II” -- Kayhan Kalhor, Persian kamantche player

Masters of Turkish Music – Rounder CD 1111

o) “Taqsīm – Makam Sehnaz” -- Kanuni Ahmet Bey (1898-1973) developed a particular mode of playing on the kanun which influenced subsequent Turkish performers on the instrument.

p) “Dus ben gibi” -- The song, written by Serif Icli (1899-1956) is sung in Makam Saba by the Turkish classical singer Sabite, performing with keman, ud, and kanun accompaniment.

Irak: l’art du ‘ûdMunir Bashir – Ocora C 580068

q) “Taqsîm in maqâm Awj” -- Played on ‘ûd by the Iraqi musician Munir Bashir – one of my favourite examples of instrumental music.

Echos du Paradis: Sufi Soul – Network LC 6759

r) “Qalandari Tune” -- The tune from the Khorasan district is played by the Baluchi Yâr Mohammad on sorud fiddle, recorded near Kharachi in 1993.

4. WESTERN MUSIC SHOWING POSSIBLE ISLAMIC MUSIC INFLUENCES

Amalia Rodrigues – Abbey Road 1952 – EMI 0777 7 811952 4

s) “Foi Deus” -- Sung by the noted Portuguese fado singer Amalia - an example of Western music which I suspect is influenced by certain elements of the Islamic tradition; fado, though a folk tradition in many respects, shares the sincerity of emotion, the rhythmic flexibility (rubato), the nuance of the voice.

Ekova - Heaven’s Dust - Six Degrees Travel Company - 657036 1020-2

t) “Chant of Diem” and “Sabura” -- The lead singer, Dierdre Dubois, has studied music from many cultures, and sometimes invents her own words / language to sing. However, there is a definite eastern sound to much of her music, due in part to her accompanists - Iranian percussionist Arach Khalatbari and Algerian ‘ūd player Mehdi Haddab. The song Sabura is in fact traditional from northern Iran.

Chominciamento di gioia: Virtuoso dance-music from the time of Boccaccio’s Decamerone – Ensemble Unicorn - Naxos 8.553131

u) “Saltarello no 4” -- This work is taken from a 14th century Italian music manuscript entitled Chominciamento di Gioia, and has been shown in an article by Timothy McGee (“Eastern Influences in Medieval European Dances”, in Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Music, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982) to bear features which resemble middle eastern music of the same period or previous.